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Chapter 4 New Beginnings: Cities And States
As we learned in Chapter 6, the Indus or Harappan or Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation, recognized as India's 'First Urbanisation', gradually declined and disintegrated around the early 2nd millennium BCE (centuries after 2000 BCE). Following the abandonment of some cities and the return to a rural lifestyle in others, urban life largely disappeared from the Indian subcontinent for approximately a thousand years, although some small towns might have existed in North India.
During this period without major cities, various regional cultures developed. Then, starting in the 1st millennium BCE, a significant new phase of urban growth began. This process originated primarily in the fertile Ganga plains, parts of the Indus basin, and adjacent regions, eventually spreading across the subcontinent. This period is referred to as India's 'Second Urbanisation' and marks a crucial development in Indian history, which continued its trajectory into modern times.
Our understanding of this new era comes mainly from two types of historical sources: archaeological excavations that uncover the remains of ancient urban centres, and ancient literature, particularly texts from the late Vedic period, Buddhism, and Jainism, which contain descriptions and references to these emerging cities and political structures.
Janapadas And Mahājanapadas
Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, following the decline of the First Urbanisation, societies in North India began to reorganize. People formed distinct groups or clans, likely sharing common languages and customs. Each clan became associated with a specific geographical area or territory. These early territorial units were called Janapadas.
The word 'Janapada' originates from Sanskrit, meaning 'where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)', signifying a settled territory for a group of people. Each Janapada was typically led by a ruler known as a rājā.
As trade networks expanded and connected these early states, some Janapadas grew and gradually merged with others. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, larger and more powerful political entities emerged, known as Mahājanapadas ('great Janapadas'). Ancient texts provide different lists of these Mahājanapadas, but the most commonly accepted list includes sixteen of them.
These sixteen Mahājanapadas were spread across a vast area, extending from Gandhara in the northwest (parts of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to Anga in the east (parts of modern Bihar and West Bengal) and down to Ashmaka in central India, near the Godavari River. It is possible that other smaller Janapadas also continued to exist independently alongside the Mahājanapadas.
A significant concentration of Mahājanapadas was located in the fertile Ganga plains. This concentration can be attributed to several factors, including highly productive agriculture facilitated by the rich alluvial soil of the plains, access to iron ore from nearby hilly regions for tools and weapons, and the development of new trade routes and networks along the river systems and across the land.
The capitals of most Mahājanapadas were major urban centres, often large and well-fortified cities. They were typically surrounded by impressive rampart walls for defense, sometimes including a moat (a deep, water-filled ditch) outside the fortifications as an additional protective measure. Gateways were often designed to be narrow to control entry and exit. Many of these ancient capitals, such as Rajagriha (Magadha), Kaushambi (Vatsa), and Ujjayini (Avanti), continue to be inhabited cities today, reflecting the enduring significance of these locations over thousands of years.
Early Democratic Traditions
Political organization in the era of Janapadas and Mahājanapadas exhibited some interesting features, including elements that resemble early forms of representative or collective governance.
In the early Janapadas, the ruler (rājā) was not expected to govern unilaterally or arbitrarily. Important matters concerning the clan were discussed in assemblies or councils known as sabhā or samiti. These terms first appear in the Vedic texts, indicating the historical depth of this tradition of collective discussion. Members of these assemblies were likely elders or prominent individuals from the clan. While the rājā was the head, he was expected to seek advice from these assemblies, as well as from ministers and administrators. Some ancient texts even suggest the possibility of removing an incompetent ruler through the assembly, hinting at a degree of accountability, although the exact legal framework and consistent application of this practice are not fully clear from the available historical data.
The political systems of the Mahājanapadas further developed these principles. Some Mahājanapadas were essentially monarchies. In these states, the rājā held the ultimate authority, supported by a system of ministers and an assembly of elders. The position of the rājā was usually hereditary, passed down through family lines. Monarchical Mahājanapadas typically collected taxes, maintained law and order, built fortifications around their capitals, and maintained armies for defense or conflict with neighbours. Powerful Mahājanapadas like Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti were often monarchies.
However, at least two Mahājanapadas, the Vajji (or Vṛijji) and the neighbouring Malla, operated under a different system. These states were known as gaṇas or sanghas (terms meaning 'assembly' or 'association'). In Ganas/Sanghas, the assembly (sabhā or samiti) held greater power. Important decisions were made through collective discussion and, if necessary, by voting. Crucially, the ruler (rājā) in these states was selected by the members of the assembly, rather than through hereditary succession. Because the ruler was chosen by an assembly and major decisions were made through collective deliberation and voting, these Ganas/Sanghas were not monarchies. Scholars often refer to them as 'early republics', representing some of the earliest known examples of republican or democratic-like governance systems in the world.
More Innovations
The period of the Janapadas and Mahājanapadas (roughly 1st millennium BCE) was an era of significant innovation and transformation that laid foundations for the future course of Indian civilization.
Beyond political and urban developments, this period saw continued cultural and intellectual growth. New schools of thought emerged, such as later Vedic philosophical schools, Buddhism, and Jainism (as discussed in Chapter 7). The teachings and literature of these schools spread through the efforts of scholars, monks, nuns, and pilgrims traveling across the subcontinent.
A major technological leap during the Second Urbanisation was the widespread adoption of iron metallurgy. Techniques for extracting and shaping iron had begun to develop in certain regions of India from the early 2nd millennium BCE. However, it was over the subsequent centuries that iron tools became common and significantly impacted various aspects of life. Iron tools, being harder and more durable than copper or bronze, greatly facilitated agriculture, enabling farming on a larger scale and clearing denser vegetation. Iron also allowed for the creation of more effective weapons for warfare, such as lighter and sharper swords, spears, arrows, and shields. While the intensity of conflict is hard to gauge, textual and archaeological evidence suggests some warfare between neighbouring Mahājanapadas, which contributed to the rise and fall of states and paved the way for larger kingdoms and empires.
Another crucial innovation was the introduction of the first coinage in India. Growing trade networks demanded a standardized medium of exchange. The earliest Indian coins were typically made of silver, a relatively soft metal. Symbols or designs were stamped onto pieces of silver, leading to them being called 'punch-marked coins'. These coins quickly became a vital part of economic activity, exchanged not only within different regions of India but also with other parts of the world. Later, coins made from copper, gold, and other metals were also introduced. Although individual Mahājanapadas often issued their own coins, coinage from neighbouring states was also accepted and used in trade, indicating established economic integration.
Comparing the First and Second Urbanisation periods reveals key shifts:
| Feature | First Urbanisation (Harappan) | Second Urbanisation (Mahajanapadas) |
| Geographical Focus | Indus-Sarasvati basin (Northwest) | Ganga plains, spreading elsewhere |
| Monasteries | No evidence | Present (Buddhist, Jain) |
| Literature (Major) | Undeciphered script | Vedic, Buddhist, Jain texts (readable) |
| Trade | Active internal and external | Active internal and external |
| Warfare (Evidence) | Limited evidence of widespread warfare | Evidence of warfare (mention in texts, iron weapons) |
| Dominant Metal Used | Copper / Bronze | Iron (widespread use) |
The Varṇa–Jāti System
With the emergence of complex urban societies and organized states during the Second Urbanisation, the societal structure also became more defined. Complex societies often organize people into various groups based on factors like class, occupation, or other criteria. These divisions can be based on roles in governance, administration, religious practices, education, trade, farming, crafts, and other specialized professions.
While ideally, different groups within a complex society might complement each other and function harmoniously, such divisions often lead to inequalities, where some groups gain more wealth, power, or influence than others. Although equality is an ideal often pursued by human societies, achieving it fully has historically been very difficult.
In ancient India, society was organized through a two-fold system involving Jāti and Varṇa.
- Jāti: This referred to a group or community of people primarily defined by their professional occupation or livelihood. Membership in a Jāti was generally hereditary, with specific skills and knowledge passed down through generations (e.g., farming, metallurgy, commerce, weaving, pottery). Jātis often developed their own distinct customs and traditions related to marriage, rituals, and food habits. Jātis could also be further subdivided into sub-jātis.
- Varṇa: This concept, originating from Vedic texts, described four broad categories or classes in society based on perceived roles:
- Brahmins: Associated with knowledge, learning, teaching, and performing religious rituals.
- Kshatriyas: Expected to protect society, govern, and engage in warfare.
- Vaishyas: Primarily involved in economic activities like trade, business, and agriculture, contributing to the society's wealth.
- Shudras: Encompassing artisans, craftspeople, laborers, and servants, often supporting the activities of the other varṇas.
The English word 'Caste' is often used to refer to this system, derived from the Portuguese 'casta'. While some scholars equate 'caste' specifically with Varṇa or Jāti, many use it as a term for the overall Varṇa-Jāti system.
Historical evidence from early texts and inscriptions suggests that the Varṇa-Jāti system was initially more flexible than in later periods. Individuals and communities could sometimes change their traditional occupations due to necessity (e.g., farmers migrating to cities and taking up crafts, or Brahmins engaging in trade or military roles). This complex system provided a framework for social organization and economic activity, contributing to a degree of social stability.
However, over time, the system became more rigid, particularly reinforced during the British colonial rule. This increased rigidity led to greater inequalities and discrimination, especially towards the lower Jātis and groups considered outside the four Varṇas. The Varṇa-Jāti system has had a profound impact on Indian society, though it is important to remember that it is one of many social structures and organizing principles that have shaped India's diverse social landscape.
Developments Elsewhere In India
During the 1st millennium BCE, alongside the rise of Mahājanapadas in North India, significant developments were also taking place in other parts of the subcontinent, facilitated by expanding communication networks.
Important trade and travel routes developed and became widely used:
- The Uttarapatha connected the northwestern regions of the subcontinent (like Gandhara) through the plains to eastern India (like Anga).
- The Dakshinapatha originated from centres in the North (like Kaushambi near modern Prayagraj), crossed the Vindhya hill range, and extended southward, connecting North and South India.
These routes were crucial not only for trade, facilitating the movement of goods across vast distances, but also for the travel of pilgrims, the spread of new ideas and teachings, and military campaigns.
Lateral roads connected these main arteries to other regions, including the important port cities on India's western and eastern coasts. These coastal ports were vibrant centres of both internal and international trade.
In the eastern region, major urban centres emerged. For instance, Shishupalgarh (modern Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneswar in Odisha) served as the capital of the Kalinga region. Archaeological evidence shows it was a well-planned city with a strict square layout, imposing fortifications, wide streets, and control mechanisms at its gateways.
In the southern regions of the subcontinent, cities began to emerge from around 400 BCE, although some archaeological finds suggest earlier commercial activity. Around this time, powerful regional kingdoms were established:
- The Cholas
- The Cheras
- The Pandhyas
These southern kingdoms are mentioned in the ancient Tamil literature, which provides valuable insights into the society and rulers of this period. The southern regions were rich in valuable resources such as precious and semi-precious stones, gold, and spices (e.g., evidence from sites like Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, known for shell and gemstone industries). This wealth fueled profitable trade both within India and with kingdoms and empires overseas, including those in the Mediterranean and Southeast Asia.
By 300 or 200 BCE, the Indian subcontinent was largely interconnected through a vast network of roads and waterways. People, goods, cultural ideas, and religious teachings traveled extensively between regions and often beyond India's borders, linking it with parts of Central and Southeast Asia. Around this time, the era of the Mahājanapadas drew to a close, setting the stage for the emergence of larger empires that would further shape India's history.